The word 'hijab' is used in seven Quranic verses: 7:46, 17:45, 19:17, 33:53, 38:32.

More particularly, Surah An-Nur (24:31) directs women not to display their beauty except what is apparent, and to “draw their head coverings over their chests.” At the same time, Surah Al-Ahzab (33:59) instructs the Prophet's wives, daughters, and believing women to “bring down over themselves part of their outer garments,” so they are recognized and not harassed.

Many classical and modern scholars view the face and hands as exempt from mandatory covering (awrah), arguing that the instruction to be "recognized" implies that the face must be visible.

Equally important, while many Muslims and non-Muslims call the 'hijab' an Islamic dress code, they seem oblivious to the fact that the concept of 'hijab' has nothing to do with Islam, nor with the Quran.

In fact, the 'hijab' is an old Jewish tradition that influenced the ‘hadith’ books. In this way, it is like many innovations that infiltrated Islam through the hadith — a recorded collection of the alleged sayings, actions, and silent approvals (tacit permissions) of the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam — released after his death.

Indeed, a careful examination of the Quran would show that Muhammad borrowed liberally from Old Testament beliefs and practices.

Moreover, any student of Jewish traditions would know that a head cover for Jewish women (and men) is encouraged by rabbis and religious leaders.

Religious Jewish women still cover their heads most of the time, especially in synagogues, at weddings, and religious festivities. This Jewish tradition is cultural, not religious. The 'hijab' was observed by women of the civilizations that preceded the Jews and was passed down to Jewish culture.

Many Christian women also cover their heads on certain religious occasions, while nuns cover their heads all the time. The tradition of covering the head was practiced thousands of years before so-called Muslim scholars claimed the 'hijab' as a Muslim dress code without bothering to ground it in Quranic texts.

In fact, traditional Arabs, of all religions — Jews, Christians, and Muslims — continue to wear a 'hijab' not because of religion but because they are accustomed and expected to do so. In Saudi Arabia, for example, all men cover their heads not because of Islamic law, but because it is part of their cultural heritage.

If there is so much reason to reject the religious origin and meaning of the non-face-covering hijab, could there be any more doubt about the face-covering niqab and burka, garments never mentioned in the Quran?

Although this examination of the misinterpretation of Muslim dress codes weakens the freedom of religion position, at the end of the day, such bans in secular countries like Portugal need to be given more careful interrogation than they have currently received, regardless of their real or alleged public safety implications.

At least, that’s what my anthropology training teaches.

As for female cleavage, I’ll leave its detailed inspection for another day.

Hymie Rubenstein, editor of REAL Indigenous Report, is a retired professor of anthropology at the University of Manitoba and a senior fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy.

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